IOS Commands

IOS Commands

Privileged Mode
   enable - get to privileged mode
   disable - get to user mode
   enable password - sets privileged mode password
   enable secret - sets encrypted privileged mode password
Setting Passwords
   enable secret - set encrypted password for privilegedaccess
   enable password - set password for privileged access (used when there is no enable secret and when using older software)
Set password for console access:
   (config)#line console 0
   (config-line)#login
   (config-line)#password
Set password for virtual terminal (telnet) access (password must be set to access router through telnet):
    (config)#line vty 0 4
    (config-line)#login
    (config-line)#password
Set password for auxiliary (modem) access:
    (config)#line aux 0
    (config-line)#login
    (config-line)#password
Configuring the Router
   sh running-config - details the running configuration file (RAM)
   sh startup-config - displays the configuration stored in NVRAM
   setup - Will start the the automatic setup; the same as when you first boot the router
   config t - use to execute configuration commands from the terminal
   config mem - executes configuration commands stored in NVRAM; copies startup-config to running-config
   config net - used to retrieve configuration info from a TFTP server
   copy running-config startup-config - copies saved config in running config (RAM) to NVRAM or "write memory" for IOS under ver.11
   copy startup-config running-config - copies from non-volatile (NVRAM) to current running config (RAM)
   boot system flash - tells router which IOS file in flash to boot from
   boot system tftp - tells router which IOS file on the tftp server to boot from
   boot system rom - tell router to boot from ROM at next boot
   copy flash tftp - Copies flash to tftp server
   copy tftp flash - Restores flash from tftp server
   copy run tftp - Copies the current running-config to tftp server
   copy tftp run - Restores the running-config from tftp server

General Commands
   no shutdown - (enables the interface)
   reload - restarts the router
   sh ver - Cisco IOS version, uptime of router, how the router started, where system was loaded from, the interfaces the POST found, and the configuration register
   sh clock - shows date and time on router
   sh history - shows the history of your commands
   sh debug - shows all debugging that is currently enabled
   no debug all - turns off all debugging
   sh users - shows users connected to router
   sh protocols - shows which protocols are configured
   banner motd # Your_message # - Set/change banner
   hostname - use to configure the hostname of the router
   clear counters  - clear interface counters

Processes& Statistics
   sh processes - shows active processes running on router
   sh process cpu - shows cpu statistics
   sh mem - shows memory statistics
   sh flash - describes the flash memory and displays the size of files and the amount of free flash memory
   sh buffers - displays statistics for router buffer pools; shows the size of the Small, Middle, Big, Very Big, Large and Huge Buffers
   sh stacks - shows reason for last reboot, monitors the stack use of processes and interrupts routines
CDP Commands (Cisco Discovery Protocol uses layer 2 multicast over a SNAP-capable link to send data):
   sh cdp neighbor - shows directly connected neighbors
   sh cdp int - shows which interfaces are running CDP
   sh cdp int eth 0/0 - show CDP info for specific interface
   sh cdp entry - shows CDP neighbor detail
   cdp timer 120 - change how often CDP info is sent (default cdp timer is 60)
   cp holdtime 240 - how long to wait before removing a CDP neighbor (default CDP holdtime is 180)
   sh cdp run - shows if CDP turned on
   no cdp run - turns off CDP for entire router (global config)
   no cdp enable - turns off CDP on specific interface

Miscellaneous Commands
   sh controller t1  - shows status of T1 lines
   sh controller serial 1 - use to determine if DCE or DTE device
   (config-if)#clock rate 6400- set clock on DCE (bits per second)
   (config-if)#bandwidth 64 - set bandwidth (kilobits)
IP Commands
Configure IP on an interface:
    int serial 0
    ip address 157.89.1.3 255.255.0.0
    int eth 0
    ip address 2008.1.1.4 255.255.255.0
Other IP Commands:
    sh ip route - view ip routing table
    ip route [administrative_distance] - configure a static IP route
    ip route 0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 - sets default gateway
    ip classless - use with static routing to allow packets destined for unrecognized subnets to use the best possible route
    sh arp - view arp cache; shows MAC address of connected routers
    ip address 2.2.2.2 255.255.255.0 secondary - configure a 2nd ip address on an interface
    sh ip protocol
IPX Commands
Enable IPX on router:
    ipx routing
Configure IPX + IPX-RIP on an int:
    int ser 0
    ipx network 4A
Other Commands:
    sh ipx route - shows IPX routing table
    sh ipx int e0 - shows ipx address on int
    sh ipx servers - shows SAP table
    sh ipx traffic - view traffic statistics
    debug ipx routing activity - debugs IPS RIP packets
    debug ipx sap - debugs SAP packets
Routing Protocols
Configure RIP:
    router rip
    network 157.89.0.0
    network 208.1.1.0
Other RIP Commands:
    debug ip rip - view RIP debugging info
Configure IGRP:
   router IGRP 200
    network 157.89.0.0
    network 208.1.1.0
Other IGRP Commands:
    debug ip igrp events - view IGRP debugging info
    debug ip igrp transactions - view IGRP debugging info
Access Lists(see notes below for details)
sh ip int ser 0 - use to view which IP access lists are applies to which int
sh ipx int ser 0 - use to view which IPX access lists are applies to which int
sh appletalk int ser 0 - use to view which AppleTalk access lists are applies to which int
View access lists:
    sh access-lists
    sh ip access-lists
    sh ipx access-lists
    sh appletalk access-lists
Apply standard IP access list to int eth 0:
    access-list 1 deny 200.1.1.0 0.0.0.255
    access-list 1 permit any
    int eth 0
    ip access-group 1 in
Apply Extended IP access list to int eth 0:
    access-list 100 deny tcp host 1.1.1.1 host 2.2.2.2 eq 23
    access-list 100 deny tcp 3.3.3.0 0.0.0.255 any eq 80
    int eth 0
    ip access-group 100 out
Apply Standard IPX access list to int eth 0:
    access-list 800 deny 7a 8000
    access-list 800 permit -1
    int eth 0
    ipx access-group 800 out
Apply Standard IPX access list to int eth 0:
    access-list 900 deny sap any 3378 -1
    access-list 900 permit sap any all -1
    int eth 0
    ipx access-group 900 out
 
Wan Configurations (see notes below for more details)
PPP Configuration
   encapsulation ppp
   ppp authentication
   ppp chap hostname
   ppp pap sent-username
   sh int ser 0 - use to view encapsulation on the interface

Frame-Relay Configuration
   encapsulation frame-relay ietf- use IETF when setting up a frame-relay network between a Cisco router and a non-Cisco router
   frame-relay lmi-type ansi - LMI types are Cisco, ANSI, Q933A; Cisco is the default; LMI type is auto-sensed in IOS v11.2 and up
   frame-relay map ip 3.3.3.3 100 broadcast - if inverse ARP won't work, map Other IP to Your DLCI # (local)
   keepalive 10 - use to set keepalive
   sh int ser 0 - use to show DLCI, LMI, and encapsulation info
   sh frame-relay pvc - shows the configured DLCI's; shows PVC traffic stats
   sh frame-relay map - shows route maps
   sh frame-relay lmi - shows LMI info
Keyboard Shortcuts
   CTRL-P - show previous command
   CTRL-N - show next command
   SHIFT-CTRL-6 - Break


Notes
 
Static and Dynamic Routing 

Static Routing - manually assigned by the Admin user entering the routes (Routed Protocols - IP, IPX and AppleTalk)
Dynamic Routing - generated/determined by a Routing Protocol (Routing Protocols - RIP I, RIP II, IGRP, EIGRP, OSPF, NLSP, RTMP)
Dynamic
1) With Dynamic Routing, routers pass information between each other so that routing tables are regularly maintained.
2) The routers then determine the correct paths packets should take to reach their destinations.
3) Information is passed only between routers.
4) A routing domain is called an Autonomous System, as it is a portion of the Internetwork under common admin authority.
5) Consists of routers that share information over the same protocol. Can be split into routing areas. 
 
Distance Vector and Link-State Routing
Routing Protocols
I) Interior (within an autonomous system - AS - group of routers under the same administrative authority)
    a) Distance Vector - understands the direction and distance to any network connection on the internetwork. Knows how
    many hops (the metric) to get there. All routers w/in the internetwork listen for messages from other routers, which are sent
    every 30 to 90 seconds. They pass their entire routing tables. Uses hop count for measurement. 1) Used in smaller networks
    that are have fewer than 100 routers.  2) Easy to configure and use.  3) As routers increase in number, you need to consider
    CPU utilization, convergence time, and bandwidth utilization.  4) Convergence is due to routing updates at set intervals.  5) When
    a router recognizes a change it updates the routing table and sends the whole table to all of its neighbors.
            1) RIP - 15 hop count max
            2) IGRP - 255 hop count max, uses reliability factor (255 optimal), and bandwidth
            3) RTMP
    b) Link State - understands the entire network, and does not use secondhand information. Routers exchange LSP?s (hello
    packets). Each router builds a topographical view of the network, then uses SPF (shortest path first) algorithm to determine the
    best route. Changes in topology can be sent out immediately, so convergence can be quicker. Uses Bandwidth, congestion for measurement; Dijkstra's algorithm;
    1) Maintains Topology Database.  2) Routers have formal neighbor relationship.  3) Exchanges LSA (Link State Advertisement) or
    hello packets with directly connected interfaces.  4) These are exchanged at short intervals (typically 10 sec).  5) Only new info is
    exchanged.  6) Scales well, however link?state protocols are more complex. 7) Requires more processing power, memory, and bandwidth.
           1) OSPF - decisions based on cost of route (metric limit of 65,535)
           2) EIGRP - hybrid protocol (both Distance-Vector and Link State), Cisco proprietary
            3) NLSP
            4) IS-IS
II) Exterior 
            1) EGP (Exterior Gateway Protocol)
            2) BGP (Border Gateway Protocol) 
Routing Protocols used for each Routed Protocol
IP - RIP, IGRP, OSPF, IS-IS, EIGRP
IPX - IPX RIP, NLSP, EIGRP
AppleTalk - RTMP, AURP, EIGRP

Problems with Routing Protocols
1) Routing Loops - occur when routing tables are not updated fast enough when one of the networks becomes unreachable. Due to the slow convergence (updates of routing table between all routers), some routers will end up with incorrect routing table and will broadcast that routing table to other routers. This incorrect routing tables will cause packets to travel repeatedly in circles.
2) Counting to infinity - occurs when packets end up in a routing loop; hop count increases with every pass through a router on the network

Solutions to Problems with Routing Protocols

1) Define the maximum number of hops - When the number of hops reaches this predefined value, the distance is considered infinite, thus the network is considered unreachable. This does stop routing loops, but only limit the time that packet can travel inside the loop.
2) Split horizon - The packets can not be sent back to the same interface that they originally came from. During the updates, one router does not send updates to the router that it received the information from.
3) Route poisoning - The router sets the cost/distance of routes that are unreachable to infinity.  Used with hold-down timers
4) Triggered updates - The router sends updates of the routing table as soon as it detects changes in the network.  Does not wait for the prescribed time to expire.

5) Hold-Downs - After the router detects  unreachable network, the routers waits for a specified time before announcing that a network is unreachable. The router will also wait for a period of time before it updates its routing table after it detects that another router came online (Router keeps an entry for the network possibly down state, allowing time for other routers to re-compute for this topology change).  Hold-downs can only partially prevent counting to infinity problem. Prevents routes from changing too rapidly in order to determine if a link has really failed, or is back up

Encapsulation Types

	Encapsulation
802.2	sap
802.3	novell-ether
Ethernet II	arpa (Internet Standard)
Snap	snap

Wan Service Providers
1) Customer premises equipment (CPE) - Devices physically located at subscriber?s location; examples: CSU/DSU, modem, wiring on the customer's location
2) Demarcation (or demarc) - The place where the CPE ends and the local loop portion of the service begins. (Usually in the "phone closet").
3) Local loop - Cabling from the demarc into the WAN service provider?s central office; wiring from customer's location to the nearest CO
4) Central Office switch (CO) - Switching facility that provides the nearest point of presence for the provider?s WAN service; location of telephone company's equipment where the phone line connects to the high speed line (trunk); Regional Telco Office where the local loop terminates (the Telco location nearest you)
5) Toll network - The switches and facilities, (trunks), inside the WAN provider?s "cloud."

DTE - the router side and receive clocking
DCE - the CSU/DSU side and provide clocking
WAN Devices
Routers - Offer both internetwork and WAN interface controls
ATM Switches - High-speed cell switching between both LANs and WANs
X.25 and Frame-Relay Switches - Connect private data over public circuits using digital signals
Modems - Connect private data over public telephone circuits using analog signals
CSU/DSU (Channel Service Units/Data Service Units) - Customer Premises Equipment (CPE) which is used to terminate a digital circuit at the customer site
Communication Servers - Dial in/out servers that allow dialing in from remote locations and attach to the LAN
Multiplexors - Device that allows more than one signal to be sent out simultaneously over one physical circuit

ISDN

ISDN BRI (Basic Rate Interface) - 2 64K B channels, plus 1 16K D channel
ISDN PRI (Primary Rate Interface) - 23 64K B channels, plus 1 64K D channel (North America & Japan), 30 64K B channels, plus 1 64K D channel (Europe & Australia) 

Classful and Classless Protocols
Classful - summarizes routing info by major network numbers; ex. RIP, IGRP
Classless - BGP, OSPF

Administrative Distances for IP Routes

Administrative Distances are configured using ip route command:

Example: ip route 154.4.55.0 255.255.255.0 195.23.55.1 85  (where 85 is the administrative distance)

IP Route	Administrative Distance
Directly connected interface	0
Static route using connected interface	0
Static route using IP address	1
EIGRP summary route	5
External BGP route	20
Internal EIGRP route	90
IGRP route	100
OSPF route	110
IS-IS route	115
RIP route	120
EGP route	140
External EIGRP route	170
Internal BGP route	200
Route of unknown origin	255

Switching Terminology
Store-and-Forward ? copies entire frame into buffer, checks for CRC errors before forwarding. Higher latency.
Cut-Through ? reads only the destination address into buffer, and forwards immediately; Low latency; "wire-speed"
Fragment free ? modified form of cut-through; switch will read into the first 64 bytes before forwarding the frame. Collisions will usually occur within the first 64 bytes. (default for 1900 series).
Access Lists

1-99	IP Standard Access List
100-199	IP Extended Access List
200-299	Protocol Type-code Access List
300-399	DECnet Access List
600-699	Appletalk Access List
700-799	48-bit MAC Address Access List
800-899	IPX Standard Access List
900-999	IPX Extended Access List
1000-1099	IPX SAP Access List
1100-1199	Extended 48-bit MAC Address Access List
1200-1299	IPX Summary Address Access List

Access List	Filters	Wildcard Masks	Additional Notes
Standard IP	Source IP address field in the packet's IP header	To put simply, when the IP is broken down to binary, the 1's allow everything and the 0's must match exactly.	Wildcard mask examples: 0.0.0.0=entire address must match. 0.255.255.255=only the first octet must match, the rest will allow everything. 255.255.255.255=allow everything
Extended IP	Source IP or Destination IP, or TCP or UDP Source or Destination Ports, or Protocol	Same as standard	The key word ANY implies any IP value is allowed, the keyword HOST implies the IP exactly has to match
Standard IPX	Packets sent by clients and servers, and SAP updates sent by servers and routers	Configured as a hexadecimal number instead of binary	-1 means any and all network numbers ( works like ANY)
Extended IPX	Source Network or Node, or Destination Network or Node, or IPX Protocol, or IPX Socket, or SAP	Match multiple networks with one statement, again in hexadecimal	The most practical use of the protocol type is for NetBIOS
SAP	Sent and received SAP traffic	N/A	Updates its own SAP tables. Again uses -1 to mean "ANY"

 
Troubleshooting Tools:
Ping Results

!	success
,	timeout
U	destination unreachable
?	unknown packet type
&	TTL exceeded

Traceroute Results

!H	router rec'd, but didn't forward because of access-list
P	protocol unreachable
N	network unreachable
U	port unreachable
,	timeout

Accessing Router with Terminal Emulation
Using HyperTerminal on a Windows machine adjust the following settings:
    VT100 Emulation
    Connection Speed: 9600 Baud
    Data Bits: 8
    Parity: None
    Stop Bits: 1
    Flow Control: None
On a Linux machine you may use Seyon or Minicom (at least one should come with your distribution).

Router Startup Sequence
POST
Bootstrap program loaded from ROM
IOS is loaded from either flash (default), TFTP, or ROM
IOS image loaded into low-addressed memory; hardware and software is determined
Config file is load from NVRAM; if no configuration exists in NVRAM, the initial configuration dialog will begin

Miscellaneous Notes
Multiple Loop Problems ? complex topology can cause multiple loops to occur. Layer 2 has no mechanism to stop the loop. This is the main reason for Spanning ? Tree Protocol.

Spanning-Tree Protocol (STP) IEEE 802.1d. ? developed to prevent routing loops; uses STA (Spanning-Tree Algorithm) to calculate a loop-free network topology; allows redundant paths without suffering the effects of loops in the network

Virtual LAN?s (VLAN's) ? sets different ports on a switch to be part of different sub-networks. Some benefits: simplify moves, adds, changes; reduce administrative costs; have better control of broadcasts; tighten security; and distribute load. Relocate the server into a secured location.

HDLC (High-Level Data Link Control) - Link layer protocol for Serial links. Cisco Default. Supports the following modes: Normal Response Mode ? as per Secondary under SDLC; Asynchronous Response Mode allows secondary to communicate without permission; Asynchronous Balanced mode combines the two stations. Has lower overhead than LAPB but less error checking.
Modular Switch/VIP Syntax
type slot/port   (example:  e 2/1)
type slot/port-adapter/port    (example:  e 2/0/1)

FRAME RELAY SETUP

FRAME RELAY SETUP:
 

Config# interface serial 0

Config-if# encapsulation frame-relay - cisco by default, can change to ietf

Config-if# frame-relay lmi-type cisco - cisco by default, also ansi, q933a

Config-if# bandwidth 56

 

Config-if# interface serial 0.100 point-to-point - subinterface

Config-if# ip address 122.1.1.1 255.255.255.0

Config-if# frame-relay interface-dlci 100
    -maps the dlci to the interface
    -can add BROADCAST and/or IETF at the end

 

Config-if# interface serial 1.100 multipoint

Config-if# no inverse-arp - turns IARP off; good to do

Config-if# frame-relay map ip 122.1.1.2 48 ietf broadcast
    -maps an IP to a dlci (48 in this case)
    -required if IARP is turned off
    -ietf and broadcast are optional

Config-if# frame-relay map ip 122.1.1.3 54 broadcast

Switching

                     Switch

Switch is  a centerlize device which connect multiple host together.
 A network switch is a small hardware device that joins multiple computers together within one local area network (LAN). Technically, network switches operate at layer two (Data Link Layer) of the OSI model.

there are  Two types of switches.

>>1.    Non catalyst ( non manageable  ) switch
>>2.   Catalyst      ( Manageable)  switch




Function of Manageable switch  : 

•  address learning 
• forward / filter 
• loop avoidance  

Address learning :: in this function swithc learn the mac address of all connected pc into its mac table.
 Forward / Filter::: After building MAC table switch forward the frame to a particular destination.
 Loop Avoidance:::  in this function switch remove the loop from network.






How to make root  manually

Switch(config)#spanning-tree vlan 1 priority  4096

 

 

Complete book of cisco routing commands

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basic of Router

• Router Commands Overview

In this section you will learn about the router commands, configurations, privileged mode commands, routing protocols, cisco labs and network configurations.
There are hundreds of basic and advance level commands of a router. It is not easy to remember all the commands. But some commands are frequently used and can be remembered with some practice. I have provided a list of the most commonly used commands based on their features and usage.
  You will find here some basic terminology of a router.
Routing: Routing is a process of moving the data (packets) through an inter network. Routing performs the two basic tasks. Define the paths for a packet and then forward the packets on the basis of defined paths. Routing can also be defined as the communication between two or more logically and physical networks and this communication (packet transfer) is brought by a router.


First of all you should remember the keyboard shortcuts of a router.
Keyboard Shortcuts
CTRL-N - show next command
CTRL-P - show previous command
SHIFT-CTRL-6 – Break

• Configuring the Router 

You will be able to learn the basic commands for configuring a router.
sh running-config - details the running configuration file (RAM)
sh startup-config - displays the configuration stored in NVRAM
setup - Will start the the automatic setup; the same as when you first boot the router
config t - use to execute configuration commands from the terminal
config mem - executes configuration commands stored in NVRAM; copies startup-config to running-config

config net - used to retrieve configuration info from a TFTP server
copy running-config startup-config - copies saved config in running config (RAM) to NVRAM or "write memory" for IOS under ver.11
copy startup-config running-config - copies from non-volatile (NVRAM) to current running config (RAM)
boot system flash - tells router which IOS file in flash to boot from
boot system tftp - tells router which IOS file on the tftp server to boot from
boot system rom - tell router to boot from ROM at next boot
copy flash tftp - Copies flash to tftp server
copy tftp flash - Restores flash from tftp server
copy run tftp - Copies the current running-config to tftp server
copy tftp run - Restores the running-config from tftp server

• General Commands

Here is a list of the general commands. These are the basic level commands and most commonly used
no shutdown - (enables the interface)
reload - restarts the router
sh ver - Cisco IOS version, uptime of router, how the router started, where system was loaded from, the interfaces the POST found, and the configuration register
sh clock - shows date and time on router
sh history - shows the history of your commands
sh debug - shows all debugging that is currently enabled
no debug all - turns off all debugging
sh users - shows users connected to router
sh protocols - shows which protocols are configured
banner motd # Your customized message here # - Set/change banner
hostname - use to configure the hostname of the router
clear counters - clear interface counters

• Privileged Mode commands of a router

Learn how to work in the privileged mode of a router.
enable - get to privileged mode
disable - get to user mode
enable password - sets privileged mode password
enable secret - sets encrypted privileged mode password
Setting Passwords on router
Here you will be able to learn how to set the password on a router.
enable secret - set encrypted password for privileged access
enable password - set password for privileged access (used when there is no enable secret and when using older software)
Setting the password for console access:
(config)#line console 0
(config-line)#login
(config-line)#password
Set password for virtual terminal (telnet) access (password must be set to access router through telnet):
(config)#line vty 0 4
(config-line)#login
(config-line)#password
Set password for auxiliary (modem) access:
(config)#line aux 0
(config-line)#login
(config-line)#password

• Router Processes & Statistics

By these command you can see the statistics and different processes of the router.
sh processes - shows active processes running on router
sh process cpu - shows cpu statistics
sh mem - shows memory statistics
sh flash - describes the flash memory and displays the size of files and the amount of free flash memory
sh buffers - displays statistics for router buffer pools; shows the size of the Small, Middle, Big, Very Big, Large and Huge Buffers
sh stacks - shows reason for last reboot, monitors the stack use of processes and interrupts routines

• IP Commands

Here is a list of the IP Commands
Configure IP on an interface:
int serial 0
ip address 157.89.1.3 255.255.0.0
int eth 0
ip address 2008.1.1.4 255.255.255.0

• Other IP Commands:

sh ip route - view ip routing table
ip route [administrative_distance] - configure a static IP route
ip route 0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 - sets default gateway
ip classless - use with static routing to allow packets destined for unrecognized subnets to use the best possible route
sh arp - view arp cache; shows MAC address of connected routers
ip address 2.2.2.2 255.255.255.0 secondary - configure a 2nd ip address on an interface
sh ip protocol
CDP Commands (Cisco Discovery Protocol uses layer 2 multicast over a SNAP-capable link to send data):
sh cdp neighbor - shows directly connected neighbors
sh cdp int - shows which interfaces are running CDP
sh cdp int eth 0/0 - show CDP info for specific interface
sh cdp entry - shows CDP neighbor detail
cdp timer 120 - change how often CDP info is sent (default cdp timer is 60)
cp holdtime 240 - how long to wait before removing a CDP neighbor (default CDP holdtime is 180)
sh cdp run - shows if CDP turned on
no cdp run - turns off CDP for entire router (global config)
no cdp enable - turns off CDP on specific interface

• IPX Commands

Enable IPX on router:
ipx routing
Configure IPX + IPX-RIP on an int:
int ser 0
ipx network 4A

• Other Commands:

sh ipx route - shows IPX routing table
sh ipx int e0 - shows ipx address on int
sh ipx servers - shows SAP table
sh ipx traffic - view traffic statistics
debug ipx routing activity - debugs IPS RIP packets
debug ipx sap - debugs SAP packets

• Routing Protocols

RIP, IGPR and OSPF are the routing protocols and here is a list of the commands for the working on the routing protocols.
Configure RIP:
router rip
network 157.89.0.0
network 208.1.1.0
Other RIP Commands:
debug ip rip - view RIP debugging info
Configure IGRP:
router IGRP 200
network 157.89.0.0
network 208.1.1.0
Other IGRP Commands:
debug ip igrp events - view IGRP debugging info
debug ip igrp transactions - view IGRP debugging

Configure the DHCP Relay Agent

Membership in the local Administrators group, or equivalent, is the minimum required to complete this procedure.

1.  first we have to install RRAS from   server mgr >> add roles. and install it.  
2. Open the Routing and Remote Access MMC snap-in.
   
3. In the console tree, expand the server name, and then expand IPv4.
   
4. Under IPv4, right-click General, and then select New Routing Protocol.
   
5. Select DHCP Relay Agent, and then click OK.
   
6. Right-click DHCP Relay Agent, and then select New Interface.
   
7. Select the interface that corresponds to the VPN server’s LAN adapter, and then click OK.
   
8. On the General tab, make sure that Relay DHCP packets is selected and then, if necessary, select values for Hop-count threshold and Boot threshold.
   
   
9. Click OK.
   
10. Repeat steps 5 through 8 for the interface to which the remote access clients connect.

How to assign a home folder to a user

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This step-by-step article describes how to use the Active Directory Users and Computers management console, the Computer Management management console, a logon script, or the command line to assign a home folder to a user.

Home folders and My Documents make it easier for an administrator to back up user files and manage user accounts by collecting the user's files in one location. If you assign a home folder to a user, you can store the user's data in a central location on a server, and make backup and recovery of data easier and more reliable.

If no home folder is assigned, the computer assigns the default local home folder to the user account. The home folder can use the same location as the My Documents folder. When you are using Windows 2003 Terminal Services, the user profile is the default home folder.

Assign a home folder to a domain user

Note: To specify a network path for the home folder, you must first create the network share and set permissions that permit the user access. You can do this with Shared Folders in Computer Management on the server computer.

To assign a home folder to a domain user:

1. Click Start, point to Programs, point to Administrative Tools, and then click Active Directory Users and Computers.
2. In the console tree, click Users.
3. In the Details pane, right-click the user account, and then click Properties.
4. In the Properties dialog box, click Profile.
5. Under the Home folder, type the folder information. To do this, follow these steps:
   1. To assign a home folder on a network server, click Connect, and then specify a drive letter.
   2. In the To box, type a path. This path can be any one of the following types:
   • Network path, for example:
     \\server\users\MrVerma
   • You can substitute username for the last subfolder in the path, for example:
     \\server\users\killer                                       ( killer= user name)
   Note In these examples, server is the name of the file server housing the home folders, and users is the shared folder.
6. Click OK.

Assign a home folder to a local user

To assign a home folder to a local user:

1. Click Start, click Control Panel, double-click Administrative Tools, and then double-click Computer Management.
2. In the console tree, click Users in Local Users and Groups.
3. Click the user account.
4. Click the Action menu, and then click Properties.
5. Click the Profile tab, click Connect, and then specify a drive letter.
6. In the To box, type a path. This path can be any of the following types:
   • Network path, for example:
     \\server\users\tester
   • You can substitute username for the last subfolder in the path, for example:
     \\server\users\username
     
     
     Where server is the name of the file server housing the home folders, and where users is the shared folder.
7. Click OK.

Specify a home folder for a terminal server

In Windows Server 2003, you can specify a home folder for a terminal server. Assign each user on a terminal server a unique home folder. This makes sure that you store the program information separately for each user in the multi-user environment.

Note: If you specify only the home folder for Windows Server 2003, both Windows 2003 and Terminal Services use this home folder.

To specify a home folder for a terminal server, use one of the following procedures.

Domain user account

1. Click Start, point to Programs, point to Administrative Tools, and then click Active Directory Users and Computers.
2. In the console tree, expand the domain node, and then click the Users folder.
3. Double-click the user account.
4. Click the Terminal Services Profile tab.
5. If the Terminal Services home folder is on the local server, click Local path, and then type the path of the profile.
   
   Note If you do not specify the location path in the Terminal Service Home folder pane, the default local home folder is located at the following path:
   system drive\Documents and Settings\username
6. If the Terminal Services home folder is on a network share, click Connect, select a drive to connect, and then type the network path.
7. Click OK.

Local user account

1. Click Start, point to Programs, point to Administrative Tools, and then click Computer Management.
2. In the console tree, click Users in Local Users and Groups.
3. Double-click the user account.
4. Click the Terminal Services Profile tab.
5. If the Terminal Services home folder is on the local server, click Local path, and then type the path of the profile.
   
   Note If you do not specify the location path in the Terminal Service Home folder pane, the default local home folder is located at the following path:
   system drive\Documents and Settings\username
6. If the Terminal Services home folder is on a network share, click Connect, select a drive to connect, and then type the network path.
7. Click OK.

Assign a home folder to a user from the command line

You can use the net user command to assign a home folder to a user from the command line. For example, at the command line, type the following command, and then press ENTER:

net user tester /homedir:\\server\tester$

This command assigns the tester$ hidden shared folder on the server to the user Tester.

Assign a home folder to a user by using a logon script

You can automate user account creation and home folder assignment. You can use the net user command to create local user accounts in configuration scripts.

Create a logon script

The following example creates a user named "tester". The user is created with a comment, password expiration settings, home folder, and profile path configured:

NET USER tester /add /comment:"Example Account for User"
/expires:never 
/homedir:\\Verma\%username%$ 
/profilepath:\\verma\profile

Assign a logon script to a profile

To assign a logon script to a profile, follow these steps:

1. Click Start, point to Settings, and then click Control Panel.
2. Double-click Administrative Tools, and then double-click Computer Management.
3. In the console tree, click Local Users and Groups, and then click Users.
4. Click the user account, click Action, and then click Properties.
5. Click Profile, and then type the file name of the script in the Logon script box.
   
   Note: For local accounts, the logon script path is %Systemroot%\System32\Repl\Import\Scripts. However, this folder is not created if you perform a clean installation of Windows Server 2003. If the logon script is stored in a subfolder of the domain controller, type the following login script path before the logon script name:
   sysvol\domainname\scripts

Note: You can also use Group Policy to assign home folders. For additional information about using Group Policy to assign home folders see the "To change the path of a user's home directory" topic in the Windows 2003 help files.

How to Install VPN on Windows Server 2008

This HowTo should show you how to install a VPN Server on Windows Server 2008 R2. This is a HowTo for a small environment or a stand-alone hosted Server.

1. Install the Role “Network Policy and Access Services” with the Server Manager 
2. Select the Role Services “Routing and Remote Access Services”
   
3. Configure and Enable Routing and Remote Access in the Server Manager.
   
4. Choose “Custom Configuration” if you just have one Network Interface in the Server
   
5. Choose “VPN access”
   
6. Finish and click next
   
7. Allow access for users “Network Access Permission”. You can set that in de Dial-In Tab under the User Premission.
   
8. Open Ports in your Firewall For PPTP: 1723 TCP 47 GRE
   For L2TP over IPSEC: 1701 TCP 500 UDP
   For  SSTP: 443 TCP

Optional: If you don’t have a DHCP Server in your local network you have to add a static address pool. This could be if you have a stand-alone Server by your provider.

1. Right click on “Routing and Remote Access” and open Properties
   
2. Click on the IPv4 Tab and check “Static address pool”
   
3. Add a static address pool of private IP addresses
   
4. Add secondary IP Address to the Server network interface which is in the same subnet as this pool.

Configuring Yum in RHEL5

Configuring Yum in RHEL5

In this article I am going to discuss how we can configure Yum for DVD sources in RHEL5.
Yum is the package management tool used these days. It has replaced the old "up2date" command which use to come with RHEL4. This command used to get updates from the RHN (Redhat Network) for the installed operating system, if the user using that command had bought a support/update entitlement from Redhat. But with the new version of Redhat and then it's free clone Centos5 "up2date" has been dropped out and instead of it "yum" as been included. "yum" was there in Fedora core for a long time and was use to update packages via 3rd party repositories. It started becoming mature with Fedora and now finally when Redhat thought it to be matured enough to make it's way into RHEL it's here.

The major problem one face with Yum is to configure it for DVD/CD sources. Yum by default doesn't comes enabled for these sources and we need to explicitly enable it. I don't know what is the reason behind not enabling Yum for these sources by default but, whatever it is we can still hack "yum" on our own and can configure it to use DVD/CD install sources.

Before starting I would like to mention that I am using a DVD source in this article which is represented by "/dev/dvd" and mounted on "/media/cdrom". The steps I tell here can be easily extended for CD sources as well. Later in this article I will tell how we can configure a local yum repository and use it for package management in our LAN clients.

First of all you have to put in the media CD/DVD into your CD/DVD ROM/Writer. Then you need to mount it manually if you are login via root user in a GUI. To do so

mount /dev/dvd /media/cdrom

After mounting the DVD we need to copy the content of the DVD onto a directory. For example I have a directory /dvd/rhel5/. I will copy the whole contents of /media/cdrom into /rhel5. This is the command

cp -r /media/cdrom/* /dvd/rhel5/

After copying the contents it's time to do some modifications. First of all we need to bring the xml files defining the groups to directory one level higher.

mv /dvd/rhel5/Server/repodata/comps-rhel5-server-core.xml /dvd/rhel5/Server
mv /dvd/rhel5/VT/repodata/comps-rhel5-vt.xml /dvd/rhel5/VT
mv /dvd/rhel5/Cluster/repodata/comps-rhel5-cluster.xml /dvd/rhel5/Cluster
mv /dvd/rhel5/ClusterStorage/repodata/comps-rhel5-cluster.xml /dvd/rhel5/ClusterStorage

Now we need to delete the repodata/ directories which comes with the default install tree. The reason behind this is that in their xml files we have a string
xml:base="media://1170972069.396645#1" .....
This string is present in repmod.xml as well as primary.xml.gz. This thing creates problem with using DVD/CD sources with yum. So we need to do the following

rm -rf /dvd/rhel5/Server/repodata
rm -rf /dvd/rhel5/VT/repodata
rm -rf /dvd/rhel5/Cluster/repodata
rm -rf /dvd/rhel5/ClusterStorage/repodata

After we have deleted the default repodata/ directories it's time to re-create them using the "createrepo" command. Now this command doesn't comes by default I guess so we need to install it's rpm

rpm -ivh /dvd/rhel5/Server/createrepo-0.4.4-2.fc6.noarch.rpm

Next step is to run this command. Before running this command we need to switch to the /dvd/ directory. Then run the commands listed below

createrepo -g comps-rhel5-server-core.xml dvd/Server/
createrepo -g comps-rhel5-vt.xml dvd/VT/
createrepo -g comps-rhel5-cluster.xml dvd/Cluster/
createrepo -g comps-rhel5-cluster-st.xml dvd/ClusterStorage/

The above commands will do most part of the job. Now it's time to configure the /etc/yum.conf for our local repository. Note that we can also create separate repo files in /etc/yum.repos.d/ directory but I have tried it without any luck. So do the following

vi /etc/yum.conf

In this file type in the following: # PUT YOUR REPOS HERE OR IN separate files named file.repo

# in /etc/yum.repos.d
[Server]
name=Server
baseurl=file:///dvd/rhel5/Server/
enabled=1
[VT]
name=Virtualization
baseurl=file:///dvd/rhel5/VT/
enabled=1
[Cluster]
name=Cluster
baseurl=file:///dvd/rhel5/Cluster/
enabled=1
[ClusterStorage]
name=Cluster Storage
baseurl=file:///dvd/rhel5/ClusterStorage/
enabled=1

We can also use GPG key signing. For that write on top of the above lines

gpgenabled=1
gpgkey=file:///dvd/rhel5/RPM-GPG-KEY-fedora file:///dvd/rhel5/RPM-GPG-KEY-fedora-test file:///dvd/rhel5/RPM-GPG-KEY-redhat-auxiliary file:///dvd/rhel5/RPM-GPG-KEY-redhat-beta file:///dvd/rhel5/RPM-GPG-KEY-redhat-former file:///dvd/rhel5/RPM-GPG-KEY-redhat-release

This will be sufficient for now. Let's create the yum cache now.

yum clean all
yum update

It's all done now. We can now use "yum" command to install/remove/query packages and now yum will be using the local yum repository. Well I am mentioning some of the basic "yum" commands which will do the job for you for more options to the "yum" command see the man page of "yum".
yum install package_name Description: Installs the given package
yum list Description: List's all available package in the yum database
yum search package_name Description: Search for a particular package in the database and if found print's a brief info about it.
yum remove package_name Description: Remove's a package.

Now I will mention the steps you can use to extend this local repository to become a local http based repository so that LAN clients can use it for package management. I will be using Apache to configure this repository as it's the best available software for this job. Do configure the repository for http access via LAN clients we need to make it available to them. For that I am declaring a virtualhost entry in apache's configuration file. This is how it looks for me


ServerAdmin webmaster@server.example.com
ServerName server.example.com
DocumentRoot "/dvd/rhel5/"
ErrorLog logs/server.example.com-error_log
CustomLog logs/server.example.com-access_log common


After this service httpd start
chkconfig httpd on

Now it's time to make a yum.conf file that we will use at the client end. I am writing my yum.conf for clients. You can use it and modify according to your setup.

[main]
cachedir=/var/cache/yum
keepcache=0
debuglevel=2
logfile=/var/log/yum.log
pkgpolicy=newest
distroverpkg=redhat-release
tolerant=1
exactarch=1
obsoletes=1
plugins=1
metadata_expire=1800
gpgcheck=1

# PUT YOUR REPOS HERE OR IN separate files named file.repo
# in /etc/yum.repos.d
[Server]
name=Server
baseurl=http://192.168.1.5/Server/
enabled=1
[VT]
name=Virtualization
baseurl=http://192.168.1.5/VT/
enabled=1
[Cluster]
name=Cluster
baseurl=http://192.168.1.5/Cluster/
enabled=1
[ClusterStorage]
name=Cluster Storage
baseurl=http://192.168.1.5/ClusterStorage/
enabled=1

Copy this file to /etc/ directory of the client end and replace it with the original file there. After copying is done it's time to do this

yum clean all
yum update
rpm --import /etc/pki/rpm-gpg/*

Now you can use yum on the client end to just install any package and it will communicate with the local repo server to get the package for you. You can also use pirut in the same way to get things done.

So this is how we can configure Yum for RHEL5 Server and can also use it to create our own local repo server for the LAN. Hope you have enjoyed reading and had your hands done on this :).

Run Windows applications on Linux with WINE

One of the biggest reasons why some organizations resist the move to Linux is the lack of applications available for Linux users—or, more specifically, the lack of Windows applications. However, just because you want to run Linux as your operating system, that doesn't mean you have to abandon your favorite Windows application. You might be able to get it to run on Linux using WINE.

What's WINE?
WINE is an ongoing project that is intended to allow Linux users to run Windows applications in a Linux environment. Although not all Windows applications will run under WINE, WINE is undergoing constant changes and many Windows applications can now be made to run under WINE.

Why WINE?
Although there are quite a few Windows applications that just don’t work with WINE and other Windows applications that install on WINE but crash frequently, there are still several reasons for using WINE. The biggest reason is to get away from Windows. Let’s face it, it’s easy to get an office suite for Linux, but most companies are unable to completely make the transition to Linux from Windows because they have a couple of mission-critical applications that simply do not run under Linux.

Companies might want to move from Windows to Linux for a number of reasons. For starters, there have been rumors that Microsoft has been considering adopting a software license model, which requires you to lease all of your Microsoft software on an ongoing basis. Many companies simply could not afford to do this. Running Linux and WINE would release you from the Microsoft monopoly.

Another reason for making the switch is because of all of the security holes in Windows. If a hacker group managed to find a major vulnerability in Windows, it would be theoretically possible to exploit that vulnerability on 80 percent of the world’s computers. However, if you switched to Linux and ran WINE, you would not be affected by any vulnerabilities that might exist within the Windows operating system because you would not be running Microsoft code.

Please note that I’m not writing this article to debate which is the better operating system. I only want to point out that there are some valid reasons why companies that have already rolled out Linux to a limited degree may want to press forward in their transition.

OK, so there are some reasons why it might be desirable to run Windows programs on Linux, but why use WINE? Why not just use an emulator such as VMWare? The truth is that when WINE works, it outperforms VMWare. Furthermore, if you want to emulate a Windows virtual machine, VMWare requires you to purchase a copy of Windows to install within the virtual machine. While it’s true that VMWare works really well, you are actually running an operating system on top of an operating system (Windows on top of Linux). This makes for some really slow performance. By the time that you pay for a copy of VMWare and the high costs associated with running Windows, running VMWare tends to be a bit pricey too.

WINE, on the other hand, is not an emulator. WINE simply uses a WIN32 API to make Windows code run on a native Linux / X Windows system. In theory, adding an extra layer of abstraction should slow things down a little bit. However, assuming that you have decent hardware, Windows applications running under WINE should perform comparably to native Linux applications. This raises the question of what constitutes decent hardware.

Hardware requirements
WINE’s hardware requirements are minimal to say the least. The first requirement is that WINE requires an X86 processor. A common misconception is that WINE is an emulator and can, therefore, run Windows applications on other platforms, such as Solaris. This is simply not true. In fact, the name WINE is an acronym that stands for Wine Is Not an Emulator. Because WINE is not emulating an X86 processor, an actual X86 processor is required.

To be more specific, WINE requires a minimum of an 80386 processor. The 80386 processor addresses memory in a very different way from prior Intel processors, and WINE depends on these differences. Even though WINE will technically run on an old 386 machine, don’t expect to be able to dig an old 386 with a 20 MB hard driver out of the closet and run WINE on it. WINE requires a whole lot more hard disk space than the low processor requirements might lead you to expect. You will need at least 250 MB of disk space just to store and compile the WINE source code. Additionally, the installation requires about another 70 MB of disk space, 20 MB of which must be available within your TMP directory.

It seems that the jury is still out on WINE’s memory requirements. There is a lot of contradictory information on the Internet regarding WINE’s memory requirements. The one thing that all of the sites do agree on though is that WINE’s debugger is memory hungry. One Web site claimed that it is possible, but not advisable, to run WINE with 8 MB of RAM and an 8-MB swap file. Another Web site suggested that 16 MB of RAM was the minimum but that WINE was painfully slow even with 24 MB of RAM. There seems to be a general consensus, though, that WINE will do a decent job of running most supported Windows applications if the computer has at least 64 MB of RAM.

Obtaining and installing WINE
Installing and configuring WINE takes a lot of work. The first step in the process is to download the WINE binaries. You can download the binaries from the WINE HQ Web site. The installation process differs depending on your Linux distribution type.

Linux distributions from Red Hat, Mandrake, and many others require you to install the binaries through the RPM command. To do so, you would enter the following command:
RPM –I WINE-xxxxxxxx-I386.RPM

In this command, xxxxxxxx represents the version number of the WINE RPM file that you have downloaded.

If you are using a Debian-based Linux distribution, you will use a different command to install the WINE binaries. The command is:
APT-GET INSTALL WINE

Whichever technique you use, the WINE binaries will be installed in the /USR/LOCAL folder unless you specify a different location.

Configuring WINE
Before you can use WINE, you must verify that the WINE configuration file is in the correct location. Most of the time it won’t be. After the initial installation, the configuration file will exist within the /URS/SHARE/DOC/WINE-xxxxxxxx/SAMPLES folder. You must copy this file to the ~/.WINE folder. To do so, you would enter the two commands shown below. The first command creates the ~/.WINE/ folder while the other copies the configuration file.
MKDIR ~/.WINE/
CP /USR/SHARE/DOC/WINE-xxxxxxxx/SAMPLES/CONFIG ~/.WINE/CONFIG

The configuration file has a lot to do with how well or even if an application will run. The default configuration file will work fine for a lot of applications, but there are times when you may want to tweak it. Tweaking the configuration file is beyond the scope of this article, but if you would like to see how it’s done, check out the directions found at the WINE Web site.

Installing and running Windows applications
Now that WINE is installed, you are probably anxious to try running a Windows application. Unlike Linux, most Windows applications have an executable Setup program. Usually this application is named SETUP.EXE, but the name does occasionally vary.

To install a Windows application, the first thing that you have to do is to make the CD that contains the application available to Linux. You can do so by using the following two commands:
MOUNT /DEV/CDROM
CD /DEV/CDROM

Now, simply issue the WINE command followed by the name of the Windows executable that you want to run (usually SETUP.EXE). The command would look like this:
WINE SETUP.EXE

When you run SETUP.EXE, you will launch the installation wizard for the application. Just follow the various prompts to complete the installation. If Setup completes successfully, then you are ready to run your Windows application. The next section of this article explains exactly how to go about doing so. If the Setup program crashes or hangs, though, then you will have to do a little clean up work.

If you have a Setup program that has hung, then the first thing that you must do is to press [CTRL][Alt][F1] to return to the main console screen. Now, login as root and then use the following command to kill the hung process:
KILLALL -9 WINE

This should terminate any processes that are running under WINE, but the process doesn’t always work. You must verify that the WINE-related processes have indeed been terminated. You can do so by issuing the following command:
PS-AX

This will list the currently running processes. If any WINE processes are listed, then pay attention to the process ID. Now, issue the following command where yyy is the process number for the process that you need to terminate:
KILL -9 yyy

Running a Windows application
Now that I have shown you how to set up a Windows application, let’s take a look at how to run the application once it has been installed. I recommend starting out with something simple. Try running Notepad. Notepad is actually built in to WINE and you can run Notepad just by entering NOTEPAD at the command line. If Notepad runs, then it means that your configuration file is set up correctly and you can try running a more elaborate application.

Basically, running a Windows application involves switching to the Windows directory, and then calling WINE along with the application name. In the example below, I am using APDIR to represent the name of the folder where my fictitious Windows application is installed. I am also using APPLICATION.EXE to represent the application’s executable. With this in mind, you would launch your Windows application by using the following two commands:
CD /APDIR
WINE APPLICATION.EXE – APPLICATION.EXE –CONSOLE

Troubleshooting
If Notepad fails to run, then WINE hasn’t been installed or configured correctly. In order to work, WINE requires some specific directories to be present beneath the .WINE/ directory. Normally, these directories should be automatically created during the installation process, but you can check to make sure that the directories actually exist. If they don’t exist, try creating them manually. The necessary directories include:

• .wine/c_drive
• .wine/c_drive/Windows
• .wine/c_drive/Windows/Fonts
• .wine/c_drive/Windows/Start Menu/Programs
• .wine/c_drive/Windows/System
• .wine/c_drive/Windows/System32
• .wine/c_drive/Windows/Temp
• .wine/c_drive/Program Files
• .wine/c_drive/Program Files/Common Files

In case you are wondering, Linux doesn’t use drive letters (C:, D:, etc.) the way that Windows does. Windows applications expect to have access to a lettered drive. WINE treats the .WINE/C_DRIVE folder as the C: drive.

Another thing to check for is for the existence of the SYSTEM.INI and WIN.INI files within the .WINE/WINDOWS directory. Again, these files should already exist, but if they don’t, you can copy them from the WINE-xxxxxxxx/DOCUMENTATION/SAMPLES directory.

Earlier, I briefly mentioned the WINE configuration file. You shouldn’t normally have to change anything in the configuration file to get Notepad to run. If Notepad doesn’t run, though, you might check to make sure that the correct paths are specified within the configuration file. This is also a good time to make sure that the configuration file has the correct map point for the CD-ROM drive. The CD-ROM drive’s map point doesn’t really have anything to do with Notepad running or not running, but checking the map point now may save you some troubleshooting later when you try to run a real application.

Installing TrueType fonts
One of the biggest problems with using WINE to run a Windows application is that many Windows applications rely on TrueType fonts. As you may know, TrueType fonts are not natively supported by WINE. Therefore, if you have an application that is TrueType-font dependent, you’ll have to make Linux know what to do with TrueType fonts.

The easiest method for doing this is to download an X font server for TrueType fonts called XFSTT. If you need the RPM file, you can get it from this RPM resource xfstt page.

Once you download and install the TrueType font server package, you will have to copy the TrueType fonts off of a Windows machine to your Linux machine. If you had a dual boot machine, the steps for copying the TrueType fonts from Windows to Linux might look something like this: (Keep in mind that the steps below assume that you are using the directory name c_drive as the C: drive for WINE.)
MKDIR -P /C_DRIVE/WINDOWS/FONTS
MOUNT /DEV/HDA1 /DOS
CP /DOS/WINDOWS/FONTS /C_DRIVE/WINDOWS/FONTS
CD /C_DRIVE/WINDOWS/FONTS
TTMKFDIR >FONTS.DIR
CHKFONTPATH --ADD /C_DRIVE/WINDOWS/FONTS

At this point, you must restart the font server. You can do so by issuing the following command:
/ETC/RC.D/INIT.D/XFS RESTART

The TrueType fonts should now be accessible to X Windows. One way to tell for sure is by running XFONTSEL to see which font families are available. You can do so with the following command:
XFONTSEL &

Keep in mind that WINE is dependent on both Linux and X Windows. Unless TrueType fonts are functional within X Windows, they will not work with WINE.

Leaving Windows behind for good
As you can see, there are situations where it may be more advantageous to run a Windows application on a Linux box than on a Windows box. In these situations, it is more cost effective and more efficient to use WINE than a Windows emulator. WINE may not be perfect, but if you're intent on running Windows applications while leaving Windows itself behind, WINE may be the way to go.

List All Users in Linux

To list all the users who can access a Linux machine we have to access the /etc/passwd file, which stores information about all registered users of that machine. But it is not really so easy as told above since the file contains many other fields & machine trust accounts & inbuilt accounts.

We'll start by
cat /etc/passwd

As we all know that by default all the users created will have their home directories in /home share so we'll modify our command a bit by using grep. Now it'll be
cat /etc/passwd | grep "/home"

Now we'll get all the user accounts which have their home share in /home.But the only output we need is the list of users & nothing else. So we'll modify our command again
cat /etc/passwd | grep "/home" |cut -d: -f1

Now what we have done is that we have piped the output of previous command to another variable "cut"

What we have done here is we have added cut -d: -f1
-d: means delimiter :
-f1 means display first field of line i.e. username.

So final command is
cat /etc/passwd | grep "/home" |cut -d: -f1
This works until all your users have their home share in /home. If you have defined their home share to some other destination. Modify the above command accordingly.